Chapter 5 RULERS AND BUILDINGS

Engineering Skills And Construction

Monuments offer insights into the construction technologies of the past. Between the 7th and 10th centuries, architects began incorporating more rooms, doors, and windows into buildings. Initially, horizontal beams placed across vertical columns formed roofs, doors, and windows—a style known as trabeate or corbelled architecture. This style was prevalent in temples, mosques, tombs, and structures attached to large stepped-wells (baolis) between the 8th and 13th centuries.

Trabeate Vs Arcuate Styles

From the 12th century onwards, two significant technological and stylistic developments emerged:

1. The arcuate style, where the weight of the superstructure above doors and windows was supported by arches. The apex stone at the center of the arch, the keystone, transferred the weight to the arch's base.
2. The increased use of high-quality limestone cement, which, when mixed with stone chips, hardened into concrete. This innovation facilitated the construction of larger structures more efficiently and rapidly.

Use Of Limestone Cement

The extensive use of limestone cement, a superior quality material, significantly eased and accelerated the construction of large buildings. This material, when combined with stone chips, solidified into concrete, enabling more ambitious architectural projects.

Building Temples, Mosques And Tanks

Temples and mosques were constructed with intricate beauty as they served as places of worship. They also functioned as demonstrations of the patron's power, wealth, and devotion.

Purpose (Worship, Patron's Power, Wealth)

Buildings were constructed not only for worship but also to showcase the patron's status and piety. The similarity in names between rulers and deities, as seen in the Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajarajadeva for the god Rajarajeshvaram, highlights how rulers sought to associate themselves with divine power. Temples served as miniature representations of the world ruled by the king and his allies, reinforcing the idea of just rule on earth.

Royal Temples And Deities

The largest temples were typically built by kings. Lesser deities within these temples represented the gods and goddesses of the king's allies and subordinates. This arrangement symbolized the king's dominion and the harmonious coexistence of his allies under divine sanction.

Muslim Rulers And Divine Connection

While Muslim rulers like the Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be divine incarnations, Persian court chronicles often referred to the Sultan as the "Shadow of God." Inscriptions, such as the one in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque, described rulers like Alauddin as chosen by God for possessing the qualities of great lawgivers like Moses and Solomon, thus linking their rule to divine authority.

Importance Of Water And Tanks

The availability of water was crucial for prosperity, as indicated by Persian terms like 'abad' (populated, prosperous) derived from 'ab' (water). Rulers recognized the importance of providing water for public use and were praised for constructing tanks and reservoirs. Sultan Iltutmish's construction of the Hauz-i-Sultani outside Dehli-i-Kuhna is an example of such a project that earned him respect. These water structures were often integrated with places of worship like temples, mosques, or gurdwaras.

Why Were Temples Targeted?

Temples were often targeted during warfare because they represented not only religious devotion but also the power and wealth of the rulers who built them. When kingdoms were attacked, destroying or looting temples served as a means to inflict a blow on the vanquished ruler's pride and prestige.

Examples: Pandyan/Sinhalese, Rajendra I, Mahmud Of Ghazni

Historical examples illustrate this practice:

• In the early 9th century, the Pandyan king Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and seized valuable statues, including a gold Buddha image. The subsequent Sinhalese ruler, Sena II, retaliated by invading Madurai, the Pandya capital, with the intention of recovering the gold statue.
• In the early 11th century, the Chola king Rajendra I adorned his new Shiva temple with prized statues looted from defeated rulers, including those from the Chalukyas, eastern Chalukyas, Kalingas of Orissa, and Palas of Bengal.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, a contemporary of Rajendra I, attacked temples during his campaigns in the subcontinent. By destroying temples, particularly the one at Somnath, he aimed to gain renown as a champion of Islam. In the political context of the Middle Ages, rulers often demonstrated their military strength by attacking the places of worship of their defeated opponents.

Gardens, Tombs And Forts

Under the Mughals, architecture became more elaborate, with rulers like Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and especially Shah Jahan showing a keen interest in literature, art, and architecture.

Chahar Bagh

Babur described his fondness for planning and laying out formal gardens enclosed by walls and divided into four quarters by water channels. These gardens were known as chahar bagh (four gardens) due to their symmetrical division. Starting with Akbar, beautiful chahar baghs were created by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra, and Delhi.

Humayun's Tomb (Hasht Bihisht)

Akbar's architects drew inspiration from the tombs of his Central Asian ancestor, Timur. The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became defining features of Mughal architecture, first prominently seen in Humayun's tomb. This tomb, situated in the center of a large formal chahar bagh, was constructed in the hasht bihisht (“eight paradises”) style, featuring a central hall surrounded by eight rooms. It was built using red sandstone with white marble edging.

Shah Jahan's Architectural Innovations (Halls, Pietra Dura, River-Front)

Shah Jahan's reign marked a synthesis of various Mughal architectural elements. His capital cities, Agra and Delhi, saw significant construction. The ceremonial halls for public and private audiences (diwan-i khas o am) were meticulously planned. These halls, also called chihil sutun (forty-pillared halls), were designed to resemble mosques, with the emperor's throne placed on a pedestal identified with the qibla (direction of prayer). This architectural feature suggested the king's role as God's representative on Earth. Shah Jahan emphasized the connection between royal justice and the imperial court through the throne balcony in Delhi's Red Fort, which featured pietra dura inlays depicting Orpheus playing the lute, symbolizing that the king's justice would treat all equally.

In Agra, the capital during the early years of Shah Jahan's reign, nobles constructed homes in formal chahar bagh gardens along the Yamuna riverfront. This variation, known as the "river-front garden," placed the dwelling at the riverbank. Shah Jahan adapted this for the Taj Mahal, positioning the marble mausoleum on a terrace at the river's edge, with the garden to its south. This arrangement allowed the emperor to control nobles' access to the river. In his new capital, Shahjahanabad in Delhi, the imperial palace commanded the riverfront, granting access only to favored individuals like his son Dara Shukoh, while others resided in the city away from the river.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal at Agra, completed in 1643, stands as the grandest architectural achievement of Shah Jahan's reign. It exemplifies the river-front garden concept, with the white marble mausoleum strategically placed on a terrace by the Yamuna river.

Region And Empire

The period between the 8th and 18th centuries witnessed a significant exchange of architectural ideas across different regions. Local building traditions were influenced by and adapted by various rulers.

Sharing Of Ideas Across Regions

Examples of this cross-fertilization include the elephant stables in Vijayanagara, which were influenced by the architectural styles of the neighboring Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. Similarly, temples in Vrindavan, near Mathura, adopted architectural styles similar to those found in Mughal palaces at Fatehpur Sikri.

Mughal Adaptation Of Regional Styles

The large empires, by unifying diverse regions, facilitated this artistic and architectural exchange. Mughal rulers were adept at incorporating regional architectural styles into their own constructions. For instance, they adopted the "Bangla dome," a roof design resembling a thatched hut that originated in Bengal. Akbar's capital at Fatehpur Sikri also showcased influences from the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa. Even after the decline of Mughal authority in the 18th century, the architectural styles developed under their patronage continued to be used and adapted by other rulers establishing their own kingdoms.